imiМеждународная аналитикаJournal of International Analytics2587-84762541-9633MGIMO University10.46272/2587-8476-2022-13-2-107-133imi-427Research ArticleОБЗОРНЫЕ СТАТЬИRESEARCH ESSAYЧастные военные и охранные компании (ЧВОК) в современных международных процессахPrivate Military and Security Companies (PMSCs) in Modern International ProcessesНебольсинаМ. А.NebolsinaM. A.

Мария Александровна Небольсина, к.пол.н., научный сотрудник Центра евро-атлантической безопасности 

Москва, Проспект Вернадского, 76, 119454

Maria A. Nebolsina, PhD in Political Science, Researcher for the Center of Euro-Atlantic Security of the International Studies Institute

76 Vernadsky Avenue, Moscow, 119454

nebolsinama@gmail.comИнститут международных исследований МГИМОРоссияMGIMO UniversityRussian Federation202228062022132107133Copyright © Небольсина М.А., 20222022Небольсина М.А.Nebolsina M.A.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.https://www.interanalytics.org/jour/article/view/427

Период быстрого роста и развития такого феномена, который сегодня принято называть частными военными и охранными компаниями (ЧВОК), совпал с двумя процессами в новейшей истории международных отношений: окончанием холодной войны и началом американской глобальной войны с терроризмом (Global War on Terror – GWOT) в Афганистане. Одновременно с этим происходило изменение отношения государств к насилию и трансформации войн в целом. Два различных подхода к истории развития рынка ЧВОК указывают на то, что у истоков формирования частной индустрии безопасности стояли люди, так или иначе связанные с оборонной промышленностью и вооруженными силами. При этом, хотя негосударственные акторы в сфере безопасности имеют более длительную историю, примеры которой можно встретить в период национально-освободительных войн середины и второй половины ХХ в. в различных странах мира, быстрый рост числа ЧВОК, формирование и укрупнение современного мирового рынка услуг частных подрядчиков в сфере безопасности начались с 1990-х гг. и продолжаются до сих пор, привлекая все новые государства, заинтересованные в использовании данного инструмента политики. На фоне мировых политических процессов происходили технологизация и совершенствование самого рынка ЧВОК, эволюционировало нормативное регулирование, менялись подходы международного сообщества к феномену ЧВОК. Однако, несмотря на функциональность, гибкость и технологичность рынка ЧВОК, он оказывает влияние на сферу прав человека, связан с коррупцией и недобросовестным исполнением обязательств при реализации контрактов. Эти и другие проблемы индустрии ЧВОК требуют пристального внимания как государств, так и международного сообщества, которое на протяжении более 15 лет проводит работу, направленную на создание механизмов нормативного регулирования деятельности ЧВОК.  

The period of rapid growth and development of the phenomenon, that is presently characterized as private military and security companies (PMSCs), coincided with two processes of modern history of international relations: the end of the Cold War and the beginning of the US Global War on Terror (GWOT) in Afghanistan. Concurrently, state attitude towards violence and transformation of warfare has been changing as well. Two different approaches to the history of the private security market’s rise unveil the fact that, in one way or another, the originators of the private security services were associated with the defense industry and armed forces. Non-state security actors look back on a history that stretches to mid- and the second half of the 20th century – the period of national liberation movements across the world. Meanwhile, the 1990s marked the rapid growth in the number of PMSCs and in the development and enlargement of the market in private security services. Its growth is ongoing and is gaining the interest of new states, particularly in utilizing its capacity as a political instrument. Against the backdrop of global political processes, the private security market experienced technological growth and enhancement. Both the normative regulation and the approaches of the international community to the phenomenon of PMSCs have been evolving and changing. Despite its functionality, flexibility and technological advantages, the market of private security can challenge human rights, as well as bare responsibility for corruption and improper fulfillment of contractual obligations. Nevertheless, episodes of revealed grave violations rarely reach courts, with infrequent cases of perpetrators’ sentencing. These, among problems occurring in the private security industry, require close attention by states and the international community, which has been making efforts for elaboration of the applicable normative mechanisms to regulate private military and security activity for over fifteen years.

частные военные и охранные компании (ЧВОК)подрядчикиаутсорсинг и приватизация государственных функцийвооруженные конфликтынасилиенарушения прав человекамеждународное регулированиеprivate military and security companies (PMSCs)contractorsoutsourcing and privatization of state functionsarmed confl ictsviolenceviolation of human rightsinternational regulationReferencesАйдарбеков, Ч.А. Правовой статус наемника: проблемы законодательного регулирования // Управленческое консультирование. – 2016. – № 4. – С. 48–60.Aidarbekov, Chingiz. “The Legal Status of the Mercenary: Problems of Legislative Regulation.” Administrative Consulting, no. 4 (2016): 48–60 [In Russian].Астафьев, Ю.Н. Наемничество – преступное орудие колониалистской политики // Советское государство и право. – 1978. – № 11. – С. 113–117.Astaf'ev, Yu.N. “Naemnichestvo – prestupnoe orudie kolonialistskoi politiki.” Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, no. 11 (1978): 113–117 [In Russian].Блищенко, И.П., Жданов, Н.В. Наемничество – международное преступление // Советский ежегодник международного права. – М.: Наука, 1980. – С. 146–160.Blishchenko I.P., and Zhdanov N.V. Naemnichestvo – mezhdunarodnoe prestuplenie. In Sovetskii ezhegodnik mezhdunarodnogo prava, 146–160. Moscow: Nauka, 1980 [In Russian].Богатуров, А. Современный международный порядок // Россия в глобальном мире: 2000–2011. Хрестоматия в 6 томах / под общ. ред. И.С. Иванова. – М.:Аспект Пресс, 2012. – Т.1.Bogaturov, A. Sovremennyi mezhdunarodnyi poryadok. In Rossiya v global’nom mire: 2000–2011, edited by I.S. Ivanov. Moscow: Aspekt Press, 2012 [In Russian].Волеводз, А.Г. О международных инициативах в сфере правового регулирования деятельности частных военных и охранных компаний // Международное уголовное право и международная юстиция. – 2009 а. – № 1. – С. 12–16.Volevodz, A.G. “O mezhdunarodnykh initsiativakh v sfere pravovogo regulirovaniya deyatel’nosti chastnykh voennykh i okhrannykh kompanii.” Mezhdunarodnoe ugolovnoe pravo i mezhdunarodnaya yustitsiya, no. 3 (2009а): 12–16 [In Russian].Волеводз, А.Г. О проектах правового регулирования деятельности частных военных и охранных компаний // Международное уголовное право и международная юстиция. – 2009 б. – № 2. – С. 4–10.Volevodz, A.G. “O proektakh pravovogo regulirovaniya deyatel’nosti chastnykh voennykh i okhrannykh kompanii.” Mezhdunarodnoe ugolovnoe pravo i mezhdunarodnaya yustitsiya, no. 2 (2009b): 4–10 [In Russian].Волеводз, А.Г. Проблемы, принципы и перспективы международно-правового регулирования деятельности частных военных и охранных предприятий // Вестник МГИМО-Университета. – 2010. – № 3 (12). – С. 78–88. https://doi.org/10.24833/20718160-2010-3-12-78-88Volevodz, A.G. “Problems, principles and prospects of international legal regulation of activities of private military and security companies.” MGIMO Review of International Relations 12, no. 3 (2010):78–88 [In Russian].Изъянов, А.Д. Наемничество по международному и российскому уголовному праву / Отв. ред. А.А. Ашин. – Калуга: Политоп, 2008. – 180 c.Iz’yanov, A.D. Naemnichestvo po mezhdunarodnomu i rossiiskomu ugolovnomu pravu, edited by A.A. Ashin. Kaluga: Politop, 2008 [In Russian].Калдор, М. Новые и старые войны: организованное насилие в глобальную эпоху / пер. с англ. А. Апполонова, М. Дондуковского. – М.: Изд-во Института Гайдара, 2015.Kaldor, M. New and Old Wars: Organised Violence in a Global Era. Moscow: Izd-vo Instituta Gaidara, 2015 [In Russian].Королькова, Е.Е. О гарантиях соблюдения прав сотрудников частных военных и охранных компаний, принимающих участие в вооруженных конфликтах: сравнительно-правовой анализ // Военное право. – 2020. – № 1 (59). – С. 225–235.Korolkova, E.E. “Legal protection of the employees of private military and security companies participating in armed confl icts: a comparative legal analysis.” Voennoe pravo 59, no 1 (2020): 78–88 [In Russian].Кревельд, М. ванн. Трансформация войны / пер. с англ. под ред. Ю. Кузнецова; 2-е изд. –М.: ИРИСЭН, Социум, 2015.Creveld, M. van. The Transformation of War. Moscow: IRISEN, Sotsium, 2015 [In Russian].Мартынов, В.А. Прогноз тенденций мирового экономического развития. Главные факторы становления мирового порядка // Космополис: Альманах. – М.: Полис. – 1999. – С. 12–17Martynov, V.A. “Prognoz tendentsii mirovogo ekonomicheskogo razvitiya. Glavnye faktory stanovleniya mirovogo poryadka.” In Kosmopolis: Al’manakh, 12–17. Moscow: Polis [In Russian].Най, С. Джозеф (младший). Будущее власти. – М.: АСТ, 2014.Nye Jr, Joseph S. The Future of Power. Moscow: AST, 2014 [In Russian].Небольсина, М.А. Частные военные и охранные компании в Ираке и Афганистане: аспекты деятельности и механизмы контроля // Ежегодник ИМИ. – 2012. – С. 288–306.Nebolsina, M.A. “Private Military and Security Firms in Iraq and Afghanistan: Aspects of the Activity and Mechanisms of Control.” Yearbook of the IIR, (2012): 288–306 [In Russian].Никитин, А.И., Небольсина, М.А. Афганистан, Ирак: разработка новой Конвенции ООН // Государственная служба. – 2009. – № 6. – С. 88–94.Nikitin, A.I., and Nebolsina, M.A. “Afganistan, Irak: razrabotka novoi Konventsii OON.” Gosudarstvennaya sluzhba, no. 6 (2009): 88–94 [In Russian].Пархоменко, С.В., Литвинцев А.А. Понятие «наемник» в международном и российском уголовном законодательстве: сравнительно-правовой аспект // Сибирский юридический вестник. – 2017. – № 3. – С. 60–65.Parkhomenko, S.V., and Litvintsev, A.A. “Concept of ‘Mercenary’ in Russian and International Criminal Law: Comparative Law Aspect.” Siberian Law Herald, no. 3 (2017): 60–65 [In Russian].Сазонова К.Л. Деятельность частных военных и охранных предприятий: вопросы ответственности // Известия Тульского государственного университета. Экономические и юридические науки. – 2013. – № 5–2. – С. 124–130.Sazonova, K.L. “Deyatel’nost’ chastnykh voennykh i okhrannykh predpriyatii: voprosy otvetstvennosti.” Izvestiya Tul’skogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, no. 5–2 (2013): 124–130 [In Russian].Сафранчук, И.А. Генезис частных военных компаний: частная сила во второй половине 20-го века // Мир и политика. – 2012. – № 2(65). – С. 77–83.Safranchuk, I.A. “Genezis chastnykh voennykh kompanii: chastnaya sila vo vtoroi polovine 20-go veka.” Mir i politika, no 2(65) (2012): 77–83 [In Russian].Сафранчук, И.А. Феномен «частной силы»: последствия для государственных и негосударственных акторов // «Приватизация» мировой политики: локальные действия – глобальные результаты / ред. М.М. Лебедева. – М.: Издательство «Голден-Би», 2008. – С. 254–278.Safranchuk, I.A. “Fenomen ‘chastnoi sily’: posledstviya dlya gosudarstvennykh i negosudarstvennykh aktorov.” In ‘Privatizatsiya’ mirovoi politiki: lokal’nye deistviya – global’nye rezul’taty, 254–278. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo «Golden-Bi», 2008 [In Russian].Селезнев, А.А. Ответственность за наемничество по французскому уголовному законодательству // Вестник РГГУ. – 2014. – № 15 (137). – С. 123–131.Seleznev, A.A. “Responsibility for mercenarism by French criminal law.” RSUH/RGGU Bulletin, no. 15 (137) (2014): 123–131 [In Russian].Старцун, В.Н. Научная школа военного права и создание нормативной правовой основы деятельности по оказанию частных услуг военного назначения: точки сопряжения // Военное право. – 2015. – № 1 (33). – С. 62–75.Startsun, V.N. “Scientifi c school of military law and the normative legal framework for the provision of private services for military purposes: the point mate.” Voennoe pravo 33, no. 1 (2015): 62–75 [In Russian].Суверенитет. Трансформация понятий и практик : монография / под ред. М.В. Ильина, И.В. Кудряшовой; Моск. гос. ин-т междунар. отношений (ун-т) МИД России, каф. сравнит. политологии. – М. : МГИМО-Университет, 2008. – 228 с.Suverenitet. Transformatsiya ponyatii i praktik, edited by M.V. Il’in, and I.V. Kudryashova. Moscow: MGIMOUniversity, 2008 [In Russian].Сучков, М.А. Война в эпоху нового технологического уклада: модель инновационного цикла // Будущее мировой политики: технологии, конфликты, институты / ред. А.А. Сушенцов, И.В. Фомин, У.К. Уолфорт. – М.: «Весь мир», 2020. – С. 92–114.Suchkov, M.A. “Voina v epokhu novogo tekhnologicheskogo uklada: model' innovatsionnogo tsikla.” In Budushchee mirovoi politiki: tekhnologii, konfl ikty, instituty, 92–114. Moscow: Ves’ mir, 2020 [In Russian].Цыганков, П.А. Мировая политика и ее содержание // Международные процессы. – 2005. – Том 3. – №1 (7). – С. 53–65.Tsygankov, Pavel. “The Substance of World Politics as a Discipline.” International Trends 3, no. 1 (2005): 53–65 [In Russian].Abrahamsen, Rita, and Michael C. Williams. Security Beyond the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511974441.Abrahamsen, Rita, and Michael C. Williams. Security Beyond the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511974441.Armstrong, Stephen. War plc: The Rise of the New Corporate Mercenary. London: Faber & Faber Limited, 2009.Armstrong, Stephen. War plc: The Rise of the New Corporate Mercenary. London: Faber & Faber Limited, 2009. Avant, Deborah D. The Market for Force. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511490866.Avant, Deborah D. The Market for Force. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511490866.Avant, Deborah. “NGOs, Corporations and Security Transformation in Africa.” International Relations 21, no. 2 (June 2007): 143–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117807077000.Avant, Deborah. “NGOs, Corporations and Security Transformation in Africa.” International Relations 21, no. 2 (June 2007): 143–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117807077000.Avant, Deborah. Making peacemakers out of spoilers: international organizations, private military training, and statebuilding after war. In The Dilemmas of Statebuilding: Confronting the Contradictions of Postwar Peace Operations, edited by Roland Paris and Timothy D. Sisk, 104–126. Abington: Routledge, 2009. Buzatu, Anne-Marie. “European Practices of Regulation of PMSCs and Recommendations for Regulation of PMSCs through International Legal Instruments.” The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2008. http://psm.du.edu/media/documents/reports_and_stats/think_tanks/dcaf_buzatu_european-practices.pdf.Avant, Deborah. Making peacemakers out of spoilers: international organizations, private military training, and statebuilding after war. In The Dilemmas of Statebuilding: Confronting the Contradictions of Postwar Peace Operations, edited by Roland Paris and Timothy D. Sisk, 104–126. Abington: Routledge, 2009.Chase, Simon, and Pezzullo, Ralph. Zero Footprint: The True Story of a Private Military Contractor’s Covert Assignments in Syria, Libya, And the World’s Most Dangerous Places. New York: Mulholland Books, 2017.Buzatu, Anne-Marie. “European Practices of Regulation of PMSCs and Recommendations for Regulation of PMSCs through International Legal Instruments.” The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2008. http://psm.du.edu/media/documents/reports_and_stats/think_tanks/dcaf_buzatu_european-practices.pdf.Coburn, Noah. The Guards, Cooks, and Cleaners of the Afghan War: Migrant Contractors and the Cost of War. Brown University, 2017.Chase, Simon, and Pezzullo, Ralph. Zero Footprint: The True Story of a Private Military Contractor’s Covert Assignments in Syria, Libya, And the World’s Most Dangerous Places. New York: Mulholland Books, 2017.Cockayne, James. Private Military and Security Companies Agree to Increased International Oversight. International Peace Institute Global Observatory, 2013. http://theglobalobservatory.org/2013/03/privatemilitary-and-security-companies-agree-to-increasedinternational-oversight/.Coburn, Noah. The Guards, Cooks, and Cleaners of the Afghan War: Migrant Contractors and the Cost of War. Brown University, 2017.Cockayne, James, Mears Emily Speers, Cherneva Iveta, Gurin Alison, Oviedo Sheila, and Yaeger Dylan. Beyond Market Forces: Regulating the Global Security Industry. New York: International Peace Institute, 2009.Cockayne, James. Private Military and Security Companies Agree to Increased International Oversight. International Peace Institute Global Observatory, 2013. http://theglobalobservatory.org/2013/03/privatemilitary-and-security-companies-agree-to-increasedinternational-oversight/.Creutz, Katja. Transnational Privatised Security and the International Protection of Human Rights. Helsinki: Erik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights, 2006.Cockayne, James, Mears Emily Speers, Cherneva Iveta, Gurin Alison, Oviedo Sheila, and Yaeger Dylan. Beyond Market Forces: Regulating the Global Security Industry. New York: International Peace Institute, 2009.Gjeijeses, Piero. “ ‘Flee! The white giants are coming!’: The United States, mercenaries and the Congo 1964– 1965.” In Empire and revolution. The United States and the Third World since 1945, edited by P.L. Hahn, M.-A. Heiss, 71–93. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001.Creutz, Katja. Transnational Privatised Security and the International Protection of Human Rights. Helsinki: Erik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights, 2006.Del Prado, José L. Gómez. “Whether the Criteria Contained in the 1989 International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries Notably Motivation Apply to Today’s Foreign Fighters?” International Community Law Review 18 no. 5 (December 2016): 400–417. https://doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341339.Gjeijeses, Piero. “ ‘Flee! The white giants are coming!’: The United States, mercenaries and the Congo 1964– 1965.” In Empire and revolution. The United States and the Third World since 1945, edited by P.L. Hahn, M.-A. Heiss, 71–93. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2001.Gumedze, Sabelo. Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa: a Need For a New Continental Approach. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2008.Del Prado, José L. Gómez. “Whether the Criteria Contained in the 1989 International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries Notably Motivation Apply to Today’s Foreign Fighters?” International Community Law Review 18 no. 5 (December 2016): 400–417. https://doi.org/10.1163/18719732-12341339.Hoare, Mike. Congo Mercenary. London: Robert Hale, 1967.Gumedze, Sabelo. Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa: a Need For a New Continental Approach. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2008.Hudson, Andrew. Congo Unravelled: Military Operations From Independence To The Mercenary Revolt 1960–1968. West Midlands, Pinetown: Helion & Co., 2012.Hoare, Mike. Congo Mercenary. London: Robert Hale, 1967.Isenberg, David. Private Military Contractors and U.S. Grand Strategy. Oslo: International Peace Research Institute, 2009a. https://wikispooks.com/w/images/7/76/Isenberg_Private_Military_Contractors.pdf.Hudson, Andrew. Congo Unravelled: Military Operations From Independence To The Mercenary Revolt 1960–1968. West Midlands, Pinetown: Helion & Co., 2012.Isenberg, David. Shadow Force: Private Security Contractors In Iraq. Westport, Conn: Praeger Security International, 2009b.Isenberg, David. Private Military Contractors and U.S. Grand Strategy. Oslo: International Peace Research Institute, 2009a. https://wikispooks.com/w/images/7/76/Isenberg_Private_Military_Contractors.pdf.Kinsey, Christopher. “Private Security Companies: Agents of Democracy or Simply Mercenaries?” In Private Military and Security Companies: Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects, edited by Thomas Jäger, and Gerhard Kümmel, 87–104. Wiesbaden: Vs Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007a.Isenberg, David. Shadow Force: Private Security Contractors In Iraq. Westport, Conn: Praeger Security International, 2009b.Kinsey, Christopher. “Problematising the Role of Private Security Companies in Small Wars.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 18, no. 4 (December 2007b): 584–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592310701778472.Kinsey, Christopher. “Private Security Companies: Agents of Democracy or Simply Mercenaries?” In Private Military and Security Companies: Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects, edited by Thomas Jäger, and Gerhard Kümmel, 87–104. Wiesbaden: Vs Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007a.Krahmann, Elke, and Anna Leander. “Contracting Security: Markets in the Making of MONUSCO Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 26, no 2 (2019): 165–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2018.1557051.Kinsey, Christopher. “Problematising the Role of Private Security Companies in Small Wars.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 18, no. 4 (December 2007b): 584–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592310701778472.Krahmann, Elke. “From State to Non-State Actors: The Emergence of Security Governance.” In New Threats and New Actors in International Security, edited by Elke Krahmann, 3–19. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403981660_1.Krahmann, Elke, and Anna Leander. “Contracting Security: Markets in the Making of MONUSCO Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 26, no 2 (2019): 165–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2018.1557051.Krahmann, Elke. States, Citizens and the Privatisation of Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139042727.Krahmann, Elke. “From State to Non-State Actors: The Emergence of Security Governance.” In New Threats and New Actors in International Security, edited by Elke Krahmann, 3–19. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403981660_1.MacLeod, Sorcha. “Private Security, Human Rights and COVID-19: Regulatory Challenges at the Margins.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3716492.Krahmann, Elke. States, Citizens and the Privatisation of Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139042727.Mandel, Robert. Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.MacLeod, Sorcha. “Private Security, Human Rights and COVID-19: Regulatory Challenges at the Margins.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3716492.McFate, Sean. The Modern Mercenary: Private Armies and What They Mean for World Order. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.Mandel, Robert. Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.Mockler, Anthony. The New Mercenaries. London: Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd., 1985.McFate, Sean. The Modern Mercenary: Private Armies and What They Mean for World Order. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.Mumford, Megan, Schanzenbach, Diane Whitmore, and Nunn Ryan. The Economics of Private Prisons. The Hamilton Project, Brookings, 2016. https://www.hamiltonproject.org/papers/the_economics_of_private_prisons. Nebolsina, М. A. 2020. “Private Military and Security Companies in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Problems and Perspectives.” Journal of International Analytics 11, no. 3 (2020): 61–77. https://doi.org/10.46272/2587-84762020-11-3-61-77.Mockler, Anthony. The New Mercenaries. London: Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd., 1985.Østensen, Åse Gilje. “In the Business of Peace: The Political Infl uence of Private Military and Security Companies on UN Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 20, no. 1 (2013): 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2012.761872.Mumford, Megan, Schanzenbach, Diane Whitmore, and Nunn Ryan. The Economics of Private Prisons. The Hamilton Project, Brookings, 2016. https://www.hamiltonproject.org/papers/the_economics_of_private_prisons.Othen, Christopher. Katanga 1960–1963: Mercenaries, Spies And The African Nation That Waged War On The World. Stroud: The History Press Ltd., 2015.Nebolsina, М. A. 2020. “Private Military and Security Companies in UN Peacekeeping Operations: Problems and Perspectives.” Journal of International Analytics 11, no. 3 (2020): 61–77. https://doi.org/10.46272/2587-84762020-11-3-61-77.Percy, Sarah. Regulating the Private Security Industry. London: Routledge, 2006.Østensen, Åse Gilje. “In the Business of Peace: The Political Influence of Private Military and Security Companies on UN Peacekeeping.” International Peacekeeping 20, no. 1 (2013): 33–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2012.761872.Percy, Sarah. Mercenaries: The History of a Norm in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Othen, Christopher. Katanga 1960–1963: Mercenaries, Spies And The African Nation That Waged War On The World. Stroud: The History Press Ltd., 2015.Pingeot, Lou. Dangerous Partnership Private Military & Security Companies and the UN. New York: Global Policy Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, 2012.Percy, Sarah. Regulating the Private Security Industry. London: Routledge, 2006.Del Prado, José L.Gómez. “Private Military and Security Companies and the UN Working Group on the Use of Mercenaries.” Journal of Confl ict and Security Law 13, no. 3 (2008): 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krp010.Percy, Sarah. Mercenaries: The History of a Norm in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.Puren, Jerry. Mercenary Commander. Alberton, Republic of South Africa: Galago, 1986.Pingeot, Lou. Dangerous Partnership Private Military & Security Companies and the UN. New York: Global Policy Forum and Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, 2012.Radin, B.A. Federal Management Reform in a World of Contradictions (Public Management and Change). Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2012.Del Prado, José L.Gómez. “Private Military and Security Companies and the UN Working Group on the Use of Mercenaries.” Journal of Confl ict and Security Law 13, no. 3 (2008): 429–450. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krp010.Rosemann, Nils. “Code of Conduct: Tool for SelfRegulation for Private Military and Security Companies.” Occasional Paper No. 15. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2008.Puren, Jerry. Mercenary Commander. Alberton, Republic of South Africa: Galago, 1986.Schahill, Jeremy. Blackwater: The Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Mercenary Army. New York: Nation books, 2008.Radin, B.A. Federal Management Reform in a World of Contradictions (Public Management and Change). Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2012.Schwartz, Moshe. “The Department of Defense’s Use of Private Security Contractors in Afghanistan and Iraq: Background, Analysis, and Options for Congress. Report for Congress.” Congressional Research Service, 2011. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R40835.pdf.Rosemann, Nils. “Code of Conduct: Tool for Self-Regulation for Private Military and Security Companies.” Occasional Paper No. 15. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2008.Singer, Peter W. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. New York: Cornell University Press, 2003.Schahill, Jeremy. Blackwater: The Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Mercenary Army. New York: Nation books, 2008.SIPRI Yearbook 2013: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Schwartz, Moshe. “The Department of Defense’s Use of Private Security Contractors in Afghanistan and Iraq: Background, Analysis, and Options for Congress. Report for Congress.” Congressional Research Service, 2011. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R40835.pdf.Spearin, Christopher. “UN Peacekeeping and the International Private Military and Security Industry.” International Peacekeeping 18, no. 2 (2011): 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2010.546099.Singer, Peter W. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. New York: Cornell University Press, 2003.Steiner, Rolf. The Last Adventurer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978.SIPRI Yearbook 2013: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016.Tkach, Benjamin, and Joe Phillips. “UN Organizational and Financial Incentives to Employ Private Military and Security Companies in Peacekeeping Operations.” International Peacekeeping 27, no. 1 (2020): 102–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2019.1698296.Spearin, Christopher. “UN Peacekeeping and the International Private Military and Security Industry.” International Peacekeeping 18, no. 2 (2011): 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2010.546099.Tzifakis, Nikolaos. “Contracting out to Private Military and Security Companies: The Market for Security Services.” European View 11, no. 1 (2012): 125–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12290-012-0197-3.Steiner, Rolf. The Last Adventurer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978.Verkuil, Paul R. Outsourcing Sovereignty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511509926.Tkach, Benjamin, and Joe Phillips. “UN Organizational and Financial Incentives to Employ Private Military and Security Companies in Peacekeeping Operations.” International Peacekeeping 27, no. 1 (2020): 102–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2019.1698296.White, Adam. 2018. “Beyond Iraq.” Armed Forces & Society 44, no. 3 (July 2018): 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X17711898.Tzifakis, Nikolaos. “Contracting out to Private Military and Security Companies: The Market for Security Services.” European View 11, no. 1 (2012): 125–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12290-012-0197-3.Yau, N., and van ver Kley, D. “The growth, adaptation and limitations of Chinese private security companies in Central Asia.” The OXUS Society for Central Asian Aff airs, 2020. https://oxussociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/the-growth-adaptationand-limitations-of-chinese-private-security-companiesin-central-asia.pdf.Verkuil, Paul R. Outsourcing Sovereignty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511509926.Verkuil, Paul R. Outsourcing Sovereignty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511509926.White, Adam. 2018. “Beyond Iraq.” Armed Forces & Society 44, no. 3 (July 2018): 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X17711898.White, Adam. 2018. “Beyond Iraq.” Armed Forces & Society 44, no. 3 (July 2018): 387–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095327X17711898.Yau, N., and van ver Kley, D. “The growth, adaptation and limitations of Chinese private security companies in Central Asia.” The OXUS Society for Central Asian Aff airs, 2020. https://oxussociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/the-growth-adaptationand-limitations-of-chinese-private-security-companiesin-central-asia.pdf.Yau, N., and van ver Kley, D. “The growth, adaptation and limitations of Chinese private security companies in Central Asia.” The OXUS Society for Central Asian Aff airs, 2020. https://oxussociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/the-growth-adaptationand-limitations-of-chinese-private-security-companiesin-central-asia.pdf.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.