Diplomatic training and Sovereignty: Insights from Non-Western States

The paper examines how the sovereignty of national diplomatic training schools in the Global South influences their standing within the regional subsystems. The study is relevant in light of the growing clout of non-Western countries in global politics and economy, as well as their ever-increasing significance for Russia. We focus on countries that seek to pursue especially proactive foreign policies: Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey in the Middle East; Nigeria, Ethiopia, and South Africa in Sub-Saharan Africa; Brazil, Cuba, and Mexico in Latin America. The authors employ a cross- regional comparative analysis of diplomatic training there, supplemented by a biographical method that traces the career trajectories of prominent foreign ministry officials. Our research rests on selected post-structuralist, post-colonial, neo-Marxist, and post-critical approaches to sovereignty in states deemed peripheral or semi-peripheral. Additionally, we take stock of various approaches to diplomacy as an institution and further conceptualize how the indigenous diplomatic practices of individual states shape their role in the region. Our findings partly support the hypothesis that higher levels of sovereignty (sophistication) in national diplomatic training schools help these states to set the (sub)regional agenda. However, high levels of sovereignty in diplomatic training, as opposed to sophistication, do not necessarily translate into a country’s ability to set the regional agenda.

1. Africa: The Unpaid Debt of Colonizers, edited by Irina O. Abramova. Moscow: Institute for African Studies, 2023 [In Russian].

2. Borzova, Alla Yu. “Diplomatic Service of Brazil.” RUDN Journal of International Relations, no. 3 (2012): 54–70 [In Russian].

3. Voskresenski, Alexei D. “Concepts of Regionalization and Transformation in Modern International Relations.” Comparative Politics, no. 2 (2012): 30–58 [In Russian]. https://doi.org/10.18611/2221-3279-2012-3-2(8)-30-58

4. Sushentsov, Andrey A., and Nikita Ya. Neklyudov, eds. “In Search of National Interests: How Diplomatic Training Affects the Sovereignty of the World’s Countries. Report of the Valdai International Discussion Club.” Moscow: Valdai International Discussion Club, 2024 [In Russian].

5. Zonova, Tatyana V. “Modern Diplomacy: Problems and Perspectives.” RUDN Bulletin. Series: International Relations, no. 4 (2007): 5–21 [In Russian].

6. de Callières, François. On the Manner of Negotiating with Sovereigns. Moscow: Gendal’f, 2000 [In Russian].

7. Latin America: Handbook, edited by Viktor V. Volsky. Moscow: Politizdat, 1990 [In Russian].

8. Nicolson, Harold. Diplomacy. Moscow: State Political Publishing House, 1941 [In Russian].

9. Protocol and Etiquette in Diplomatic Activity of Foreign Countries, edited by Anatoly V. Torkunov and Alexander N. Panov. Moscow: Aspect Press, 2023 [In Russian].

10. Satow, Ernest M. A Guide to Diplomatic Practice. Moscow: International Relations, 2018 [In Russian].

11. Smirnova, Polina E. “Historical Roots of NeoOttomanism in the Foreign Policy of the Republic of Turkey.” Vestnik NNGU, no. 1 (2023): 56–66 [In Russian].

12. Tovsultanov, Rustam A., Tovsultanova, Malika Sh., Galimova, Liliya N. “Turkish Political Doctrine of ‘NeoOttomanism’: Between Symbolic and Real Content.” SNV, no. 4 (2021): 230–234 [In Russian].

13. Fituni, Leonid L., Abramova, Irina O. “Political Theory of Decolonization: Imperatives of Modern Interpretation.” Polis. Political Studies, no. 6 (2020): 26–40 [In Russian]. https://doi.org/10.17976/jpps/2020.06.03.

14. Shemyakin, Yakov G. Europe and Latin America: Interaction of Civilizations in the Context of World History. Moscow: Nauka, 2001 [In Russian].

15. Elmuradov, Aziz. “Postcolonial/Decolonial Critique and International Relations Theory.” Vestnik MGIMOUniversity, no. 3 (2021): 23–38 [In Russian]. https://doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2021-3-78-23-38.

16. Adler-Nissen, Rebecca, and Vincent Pouliot. “Power in Practice: Negotiating the International Intervention in Libya.” European Journal of International Relations, no. 4 (2014): 889–911. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066113512702.

17. Anghie, Antony. Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.

18. Azeez, Ademola, and Segun Oshewolo. “Diplomatic Jobs in Nigeria: Careerists v. Political Appointees.” The Round Table, no. 4 (2021): 520–521. https://doi.org/10.1080/00358533.2021.1957237.

19. Bugnon, Elsa. “La Formation de Jeunes Diplomates des Pays Nouvellement Indépendants à Genève dans les Années 1960”. Relations Internationales, no. 1 (2019): 99–110. https://doi.org/10.3917/ri.177.0099. Bugnon, Elsa. “The Training of Young Diplomats from Newly Independent Countries in Geneva in the 1960s.” Relations Internationales, no. 1 (2019): 99–110 [In French].

20. Bugnon, Elsa. “Voyage d’études de futurs diplomates des pays émergents en formation à Genève: Une opportunité pour la Suisse de s’exposer”. Traverse, no. 1 (2018): 172–179. Bugnon, Elsa. “Study Trip for Future Diplomats from Emerging Countries in Training in Geneva: An Opportunity for Switzerland to Showcase Itself.” Traverse, no. 1 (2018): 172–179 [In French].

21. Cheibub, Zairo B. “A Carreira Diplomática no Brasil: O Processo de Burocratização do Itamarati.” Revista de Administração Pública, no. 2 (1989): 97–128. Cheibub, Zairo B. “The Diplomatic Career in Brazil: The Bureaucratization Process of Itamaraty.” Revista de Administração Pública, no. 2 (1989): 97–128 [In Portuguese].

22. Cornago, N. “Diplomatic Knowledge.” In The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy, edited by Costas Constantinou, Paul Sharp, Pauline Kerr. London: Sage, 2016. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957930.

23. Der Derian, James. On Diplomacy: A Genealogy of Western Estrangement. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987.

24. Doty, Roxanne L. Imperial Encounters: The Politics of Representation in North-South Relations. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.

25. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. New York: Grove, 1967.

26. Fafowora, Oladapo O. Lest I Forget: Memoirs of Nigerian Career Diplomat. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of International Affairs, 2013.

27. Frank, Andre G. Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978.

28. Garcia, Eugenio. “On How Brazil Almost Became a Permanent Member of the United Nations Security Council in 1945.” Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, no. 1 (2011): 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-73292011000100010.

29. Grovogui, Siba N. “Regimes of Sovereignty: International Morality and the African Condition.” European Journal of International Relations, no. 3 (2002): 315–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066102008003001.

30. Harris, Jonathan. “Geopolitics of Decolonization: Carnegie Endowment’s Diplomatic Training Program 1960–1973.” Geoforum, no. 124 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104067.

31. Harris, Jonathan, Ruth Craggs, and Fiona McConnell. “Understanding Diplomatic Training from the Global South: Transnational Networks and (Post)colonial Connections.” Diplomatica, no. 1 (2023): 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1163/25891774-bja10098.

32. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. Oxford University Press, 1996.

33. Kappeler, Dietrich. “Knowledge Management and Diplomatic Training – New Approaches for Training Institutions.” In Knowledge and Diplomacy, edited by Jovan Kurbalija, 67–69. Msida: Academic Training Institute, 2002.

34. Kia, Tambari S. Nwigbo, and Peter A. Ojie. “Foreign Policy Strategy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1960– 2012: The Missing Link.” Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy, no. 2 (2017): 10–27.

35. Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.

36. Krasner, Stephen D. Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.

37. Lake, David A. “The New Sovereignty in International Relations.” International Studies Review, no. 3 (2003): 303–323. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1079-1760.2003.00503001.x.

38. Landsberg, Chris, and Costa Georghiou. “The Foreign Policy and Diplomatic Attributes of a Developmental State: South Africa as Case Study.” South African Journal of International Affairs, no. 4 (2015): 479–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/10220461.2015.1124805.

39. Leki, Ray S. “Growing Global Resilience Leadership: Working with Diplomats.” Advances in Global Leadership, no. 12 (2019): 191–205.

40. Mathieu, Xavier. Sovereignty and the Denial of International Equality. London: Routledge, 2021.

41. Mesquita, Rafael, and Jia Huei Chien. “Do Regional Powers Prioritise their Regions? Comparing Brazil, South Africa and Turkey.” Third World Quarterly, no. 7 (2021): 1544–1565. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1898280.

42. Mbembe, Achille. Necropolitics. Durham, NK: Duke University Press, 2019.

43. McCarty, Teresa L., and Tiffany S. Lee. “Critical Culturally Sustaining / Revitalizing Pedagogy and Indigenous Education Sovereignty.” Harvard Educational Review, no. 1 (2014): 101–124. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.84.1.q83746nl5pj34216.

44. McEwan, Cheryl. Postcolonialism, Decoloniality and Development. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2018. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315178363.

45. McConnell, Fiona, Ruth Craggs, and Jonathan Harris. “Tracing Diplomatic Tutelage: (Post)colonial Pedagogies and the Training of African Diplomats.” International Political Sociology, no. 3 (2024): olae030. https://doi.org/10.1093/ips/olae030.

46. Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948/1973.

47. Neumann, Iver B. At Home with the Diplomats. Inside a European Foreign Ministry. Ithaca; London: Cornell University Press, 2012.

48. Obasanjo, Olusegun. My Watch. Lagos: Kachifo Limited, 2015.

49. Pourmokhtari, Navid. “A Postcolonial Critique of State Sovereignty in IR: The Contradictory Legacy of a ‘West-centric’ Discipline.” Third World Quarterly, no. 10 (2013): 1767–1793. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.851888.

50. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Grove, 1978.

51. Schulz, Michael, Fredrik Söderbaum, and Öjendal Joakim, eds. Regionalization in a Globalizing World: A Comparative Perspective on Forms, Actors, and Processes. London; New York: Zed Books, 2001.

52. Shagari, Shehu. Shehu Shagari: Beckoned to Serve. Lagos: Heinemann Educational Books, 2001.

53. Sidaway, James D. “Postcolonial Geographies: An Exploratory Essay.” Progress in Human Geography, no. 4 (2000): 591–612. https://doi.org/10.1191/030913200100189120.

54. Soliman, Ghada S. The Making of a Diplomat: the Selection and Recruitment Process in the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. PhD Thesis. The American University in Cairo, 2012.

55. Standfield, Catriona. “Gendering the Practice Turn in Diplomacy.” European Journal of International Relations, no. 1 (2020): 140–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066120940351.

56. Trigona, Alex S. “Knowledge and Diplomacy.” In Knowledge and Diplomacy, edited by Jovan Kurbalija, 70–75. Msida: Academic Training Institute, 2002.

57. Wallerstein, Immanuel. “World-Systems Analysis.” In Social Theory Today, edited by Anthony Giddens and Jonathan Turner, 309–324. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 1987.

58. Watson, Adam. Diplomacy: The Dialogue Between States. 1st ed. London; New York. Routledge, 1982.

59. Wendt, Alexander. Social Theory of International Relations. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

60. Zenebe Felek, Mesfin. “The Implications of Ethiopia’s Foreign Policy Dynamics Towards the Horn of Africa since 1991.” Cogent Social Sciences, no. 1 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2287316.